C++ Templates & Metaprogramming
Purpose
This blog post is intended to serve as a brief introduction to templates in C++. It will show some and explain some basic examples, and provide some reasoning and motivation. It’ll then explain some more advanced concepts, and showcase them.
What are templates?
Templates are C++’s version of generics. For example, if we want to write a function that can add two parameters together, we could write it like this:
template<typename T>
T add(T a, T b){
return a+b;
}
We can call it as we would any normal function. For example:
int a = add(1, 2);
Let’s break it down bit by bit:
template< signifies that this function (or class/struct, more on that later), is a template.
typename T says that we are declaring a type called T, which will be specified by the user.
T add(T a, T, b){ says that this function has a return type of T, and takes two parameters also of type T.
The type of T is automatically inferred when we call it, since we use it as parameters.
The key difference between C++ templates and something like Java’s generics, is that all the magic of templates happens at compile-time, and there is no type-erasure. The compiler basically stamps out a copy of the function with T replaced with the actual type. This happens once per unique signature. So if we call our add function like this:
int a = add(1, 2);
int b = add(2, 1);
float c = add(3.0, 4.0);
The compiler will generate code equivalent to this:
int add(int a, int b){
return a+b;
}
float add(float a, float b){
return a+b;
}
Note that templates can also be classes/structs:
template <typename T, typename U>
struct pair{
T first;
U second;
};
Like the functions, a copy of this code(and any class methods), is stamped out per unique signature.
Benefits
There are numerous benefits to this over run-time, type-erased generics:
- Templates are duck-typed. This means that as long as the types support whatever is done to them(operators, methods, etc), it will compile. This removes the need to inherit from interfaces and override their methods, which incurs a performance penalty.
- Because a unique copy is created for each signature, the compiler can optimize for each specific case, making optimizations not otherwise possible. This also means that layers of templates can be ‘transparent’ to the compiler, making them effectively collapse into very little code.
- Because the types are not erased, we can do interesting things like branch off of the type, running optimized code for special scenarios at no cost.
- Templates are turing complete, allowing for compile-time generation of look-up tables, among other things.
Drawbacks
- Excessive and irresponsible use of templates can make compile times balloon.
- Error messages are sometimes very hard to decipher
- Some template techniques are confusing and esoteric
Motivation
Let’s say we have a pair of iterators, and want to find out the distance between them. Here’s how you would write it so that it worked with every iterator from every container:
template <typename Iter, typename DiffType = std::iterator_traits<Iter>::difference_type>
DiffType dist(Iter begin, Iter end){
DiffType count(0);
for(; begin != end; ++begin)
++count;
return count;
}
The typename DiffType = std::iterator_traits<Iter>::difference_type just aliases the type so we don’t have to type a long type name twice. See here for more on the actual iterator_traits function.
Note that runtime is O(N). This works, but in some cases, we can do better. Iterators from containers such std::vector can have their distance computed in constant time, since they are really just pointers. These iterators support the subtraction operator. So for vectors, we want code that looks like this:
template <typename Iter, typename DiffType = std::iterator_traits<Iter>::difference_type>
DiffType dist(Iter begin, Iter end){
return end - begin;
}
We can leverage templates to do this. First, we have to discuss decltype, declval, SFINAE, void_t, and show some examples.
decltype & declval
decltype Basically extracts the type of the given expression. For example, decltype(5) will yield the type int.
declval takes a type as a template parameter, and produces a non-instantiable version of that object. This is generally used to create an expression from template parameters, and then extract that type. For example, if we want to get the type of adding two Ts together, we would write:
decltype(std::declval<T&>() + std::declval<T&>())
SFINAE, std::enable_if, & void_t
SFINAE stands for Substitution Failure is Not An Error. This rule states that a template that is ill-formed does not generate an error. Instead, the next viable overload is attempted. See here for more details.
To leverage this functionality, the standard library provides the function enable_if. (Click here for docs)
This function removes a template from the set of possible matches if the first template parameter is false.
std::void_t is a utility function that is used to check if a sequence of types is well formed. Docs
Part 1
We need to begin by creating a way to test if we can subtract two objects. To do this, we will write some code similar to the ones found in type_traits
First, we will provide a base template. This template has the lowest priority, so if there is another template, it will take priority (if valid).
template <typename T, typename = void>
struct can_subtract : std::false_type{};
The typename = void is because we will need that parameter later, but don’t need to do anything with it here.
: std::false_type makes this class inherit from std::false_type, which provides a public boolean named value, which is false.
Now, we add in our specialization. This is where we test if we can subtract the types.
template <typename T>
struct can_subtract<T, std::void_t<decltype(std::declval<T&>() - std::declval<T&>())>> : std::true_type{};
This syntax is a specialization. We take the T as normal, but instead of having our second parameter be void (typename = void), we basically check if the expression T-T is valid using void_t. If it is, this template will take priority over the other one (because it is specialized), and will be instantiated instead. Now, it will still have a public boolean named value, but it will be true instead.
We now have a way to test if our objects support subtraction. With this, we can build our distance function.
Part 2
The non-optimized, normal version will look like this:
template <typename T,
typename diff_type = std::iterator_traits<T>::difference_type,
std::enable_if_t<!can_subtract<T>::value, int> = 0>
diff_type dist(T begin, T end){
diff_type count{0};
for(; begin != end; ++begin, ++count);
return count;
}
The std::enable_if line checks if T can not be subtracted. If it can’t be, then it evaluates to type int. The = 0 is needed because of a quirk in how redeclarations are recognized (see the enable_if docs for more details). Conversely, if T CAN be subtracted from itself, the enable_if will trigger SFINAE, and this template will be discarded.
The special version looks like this:
template<typename T,
typename diff_type = std::iterator_traits<T>::difference_type,
std::enable_if_t<can_subtract<T>::value, int> = 0>
diff_type dist(T begin, T end){
return end - begin;
}
The only difference (aside from the function body), is that the enable_if fires if we CAN subtract it, and triggers SFINAE if we cannot.
The complete code looks like this:
#include <type_traits>
#include <iostream>
#include <vector>
#include <list>
#include <iterator>
template <typename T, typename = void>
struct can_subtract : std::false_type{};
template <typename T>
struct can_subtract<T, std::void_t<decltype(std::declval<T&>() - std::declval<T&>())>> : std::true_type{};
template <typename T,
typename diff_type = std::iterator_traits<T>::difference_type,
std::enable_if_t<!can_subtract<T>::value, int> = 0>
diff_type dist(T begin, T end){
diff_type count{0};
for(; begin != end; ++begin, ++count);
std::cout << "Normal Version\n";
return count;
}
template<typename T,
typename diff_type = std::iterator_traits<T>::difference_type,
std::enable_if_t<can_subtract<T>::value, int> = 0>
diff_type dist(T begin, T end){
std::cout << "Specialized Version\n";
return end - begin;
}
int main(){
std::vector<int> vec{1,2,3};
std::list<int> li{1,2,3};
std::cout << dist(vec.begin(), vec.end()) << "\n";
std::cout << dist(li.begin(), li.end()) << "\n";
return 0;
}
Note: You will probably need a newer C++ compiler for this.
Conclusion
While a very short example, hopefully this blog post has provided some ideas on how one can leverage templates to do large amounts of work at compile time. It should be noted that this post barely scratches the surface of what is possible. Readers interested in learning more should consult the following sources, which I used while writing this blog post.